Orchestra
- Historical outline
The history of the orchestra may be surveyed according to the stylistic
periods of Western music. These stylistic periods are referred to
as the Baroque period (c.1600-1750), Classical period (c.1750-1820's),
Romantic period (c.1820's-1900), and the 20th century to the present.
For each of these stylistic periods, general characteristics of the
orchestra are introduced in the historical outline below. Significant
developments regarding instrumentation, roles of the instruments,
size of the ensemble, and key figures are highlighted.
For further information on the historical development of specific
instruments, see Instruments-History.
For representative repertoire in each stylistic period, see Repertoire.
Early
history - Baroque period (c.1600-1750)
During the Baroque period, instrumental ensembles accompanied ballets,
dances, operas, church services, and banquets. The orchestra is thought
to have originated from the violin bands in France. Through the efforts
of key figures, such as Lully and Corelli, the orchestra came to fruition
in France and Italy by the 1680’s. These developments later
reached Germany and England by 1700. By the 1730’s and 1740’s,
orchestras disseminated throughout Europe and gradually cultivated
a more independent identity as an ensemble.
Up to the 17th century,
the notion of a standard ensemble whose members play throughout an
entire performance had not been developed. Instead, various combinations
of musicians played according to the musical purpose or dramatic scene
in a theatrical production.
By the end of the Baroque
period (c.1750) and with the rise of the orchestra (1680-1740), the
orchestra became known as one large unified ensemble, rather than
a combination of several smaller ensembles.
Instrumentation
- The violin bands of
France are considered to be the precursors of the orchestra. These
ensembles featured string instruments, notably five sizes of instruments
from the violin family.
- The French Baroque instruments
(e.g. recorders, flutes, oboes, and bassoons) gradually replaced
Renaissance wind instruments (e.g. cornets, shawms, and curtals).
- Orchestras started to
include pairs of horns.
Roles
of the instruments
- Instruments commonly
doubled the vocal line and filled in the harmony.
- Instruments also fulfilled
a programmatic role in theatrical productions by reinforcing symbolism
or imagery. For instance, certain instruments commonly accompanied
scenes with the Gods, such as lutes, viols, and harps. In pastoral
scenes, one often heard flutes, shawms and pipes. Other instruments
portrayed the underworld, such as trombones and bass viols.
- Instrumentalists themselves
started to specialize in playing a particular instrument. Beforehand,
instrumentalists practiced versatility by mastering a number of
instruments in the same registral range.
Size
of the ensemble
- The number of strings
instruments, especially violins, increased in number. Corelli’s
large violin bands employed as many as 40 to 70 players.
- The leader of the orchestra
was usually a violinist. This person set the tempo, and made decisions
about bowing and ornamentation.
- Around 1730, J.S. Bach’s
requirements for an orchestra in the church consisted of: 2-3 first
violins, 2-3 second violins, 2 first violas, 2 second violas, 2
violoncellos, 1 violone (precursor of the double bass), 2-3 hautbois
(oboes), 1-2 bassoons, 3 trumpets, and 1 kettledrum. The ensemble
would have included at least 18 musicians.
Key
figures
- Jean-Baptiste Lully
(1632-1687) of France was a key figure in the development of
the orchestra. Lully’s developments and standards impressed
those from other countries, and soon French ensembles were admired
and emulated elsewhere. For instance, Lully required his string
players to bow up and down in the same manner. Not only were French
musicians hired in other countries, musicians from other countries
were sent to Paris to learn.
- Archangelo Corelli
(1653-1713) of Italy was another important figure in the early
history of the orchestra. From 1680 to 1712, Corelli directed large
violin bands, which were fashionable in Italy from the 1660’s.
Similar to Lully, Corelli demanded a certain standard of orchestral
playing and required that string musicians play with the same bowing.
Instruments-History
Woodwinds
Brass
Strings
Percussion
Repertoire
Classical
period (c.1750-1820's)
Up to the 1780s, the typical orchestra consisted mainly of string
and some wind instruments, along with keyboard continuo. Brass instruments
and percussion appeared occasionally. By the 1780s and 1790s, more
instruments joined the standard orchestral palette, including flutes,
clarinets, trumpets, and timpani. On the other hand, the keyboard
continuo relinquished its spot in the orchestra.
With the master Viennese composers – Franz J. Haydn (1732-1809),
Wolfgang A. Mozart (1756-1791), and Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
– orchestral writing for individual instruments advanced. The
wind instruments rose to the challenge of playing more thematic material,
at times taking the melody and the solos. The lower-pitched instruments
played more independent parts.
During the 18th century, only a few concert halls featured mainly
orchestral music. Rather, orchestral concerts often took place in
theatres, halls of palaces, large houses, inns, and other public buildings.
By the latter half of the 18th century, larger cities offered concert
series featuring their orchestras.
Instrumentation
- Up to the 1780’s,
the typical orchestra included the following instruments: violins,
violas, cellos, double basses, two oboes, one or two bassoons, two
horns, and keyboard continuo such as a harpsichord. Trumpets and
timpani appeared in festive or military music, and trombones appeared
in church music. Violins were divided into two sections of roughly
equal size, playing two parts. Violas now functioned as a single
section playing one part (except in France), although “divisi”
parts were sometimes written. This represented the typical orchestra
for Italian opera, spoken theatre, private and public concerts,
important church services, and dancing.
- Beethoven further transformed
the orchestra, providing double basses with their own part, adding
third and fourth horn parts, and including the trombone as a standard
orchestral instrument.
- By the 1780s and 1790s,
the first violinist directed most orchestras (except in France where
baton conductors appeared as early as the 18th century).
- The orchestra evolved
somewhat differently in France, especially in Paris. Musicians continued
to follow the traditions established by Lully into the 1770’s.
However, by the 1780s the large orchestras in Paris resembled the
many other Classical orchestras throughout Europe.
Roles
of the instruments
- Up to the 1780’s:
Cellos, double basses, bassoons, and keyboard typically played the
same part. The cellos and bassoons occasionally had obbligato passages,
and the keyboardist improvised harmonies above the bass. Oboists
often played the flute as well. Oboes and flutes were interchangeable,
and not typically played simultaneously.
- During the 1780’s
and 1790’s: Wind instruments carried a more important role
in the orchestra, introducing thematic material or playing solo
passages. Previously, the wind instruments had doubled the string
parts or alternated with them. The bass parts separated into independent
parts for the bassoons, cellos, and double basses.
- The role of keyboard
continuo in the orchestra gradually faded.
- Certain instruments
continued to be associated with images, scenes, or characters, for
instance the trombone and the underworld, or the clarinet and shepherds.
Size
of the ensemble
- According to historical
documents, in 1782 the Mannheim Court Orchestra included: 23 violins,
3, violas, 4 cellos, 3 basses, 4 flutes, 3 oboes, 4 clarinets, 4
bassoons, and 6 horns.
- In 1783 the Dresden
Orchestra included: 15 violins, 4 violas, 4 cellos, 3 basses, 3
flutes, 4 oboes, 4 bassoons, 3 horns, 1 organ, and 1 lute.
- In 1787 the Berlin Orchestra
included: 20 violins, 6 violas, 8 cellos, 4 basses, 2 flutes, 4
oboes, 2 clarinets, 4 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones,
1 timpani, and 1 harp.
- By 1790, the standard
high-classical orchestra typically included: 23 violins, 7 violas,
5 cellos, 7 double basses, 5 flutes and oboes, 2 clarinets, 3 bassoons,
4 horns, 2 trumpets, timpani, and 2 harpsichords.
- Sometimes an even larger
ensemble was required for special occasions. In this case, the string
section increased in size, and the winds doubled in number.
- The seating of the
musicians in the orchestra varied considerably depending on the
venue and occasion.
- During the 18th century,
the first violinist and sometimes the keyboardist continued to lead
the orchestra. However, by the early 19th century, the role of the
conductor started to emerge.
Key
figures
- The core Viennese composers
- Franz J. Haydn (1732-1809), Wolfgang A. Mozart (1756-1791), and
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) – advanced the symphony as
a musical genre, and helped establish the standard orchestral ensemble.
Instruments-History
Woodwinds
flute
• oboe • clarinet
• bassoon
Brass
French
horn • trumpet
• trombone •
tuba
Strings
violin
• viola • cello
• double bass
Percussion
Repertoire-Classical
period
Romantic
period (c.1820's-1900)
During this period, the orchestra underwent a number of significant
changes: (1) the number of orchestral ensembles increased worldwide
along with the establishment of orchestral organizations, some of
which continue today; (2) orchestral performances reached wider and
more public audiences, extending beyond the aristocratic court audience
of the previous century; (3) musical centers offered concert series;
(4) the baton conductor became an established leader of the orchestra;
(5) the size of orchestras increased, sometimes to astounding proportions,
as more players were recruited and new instruments were included;
(6) new inventions transformed the construction of many orchestral
instruments, for instance keyholes on wind instruments and valves
on brass instruments.
Some European concert orchestras that were founded during the 19th
century continue today: London Philharmonic (founded in 1813), Vienna
Philharmonic (founded in 1842), Budapest Philharmonic (founded in
1853), Berlin Philharmonic (founded in1887), and the Concertgebouw
Orchestra of Amsterdam (founded in 1888), for example.
During this period, orchestras were founded in other parts of the
world including the United States: New York Philharmonic (founded
in 1842 as a society of professional musicians), Boston Symphony (founded
in 1881), Chicago Symphony (founded in 1891), Cincinnati Symphony
(founded in 1894), and the Philadelphia Orchestra (in 1900), for example.
These American orchestras hired mostly European immigrants at first,
such as English and French musicians, and later German and Italian
musicians.
Instrumentation
- During this century,
more instruments were introduced into the orchestra. By 1810, the
piccolo, double bassoon, and trombones were introduced. By the 1830’s,
the tuba started to replace other low brass instruments.
- By the mid-19th century,
the bass clarinet and cornet were invented. The English horn was
reintroduced into the orchestra, and harps were included as well.
- With the addition of
valves to brass instruments, trumpets and horns could play melodies
in various keys and in lower registers. During the first half of
the 19th century, both valved and natural instruments appeared together
in orchestras.
- With the addition of
keywork on wind instruments, musicians could execute more rapidly
and play more easily in tune. Other advancements allowed wind players
to play louder and more legato over the entire chromatic range.
- From the 1820’s,
orchestras included one or even two harps.
Roles
of the instruments
- Musicians became highly
specialized in playing a specific instrument, often receiving special
training in orchestral playing from conservatories. Orchestral playing
became a profession, and associations formed on behalf of orchestral
musicians.
- Orchestras during the
19th century continued to play masterpieces from the Classical period.
To some extent, the organization of the orchestra remained as it
was near the end of the Classical period.
Size
of the ensemble (and arrangement)
- Orchestras grew in
scale as the sheer number of players increased. For example, the
court orchestra in Dresden and the London Philharmonic grew from
about 60 players in the 1820’s to over 90 players by the 1890’s.
- According to historical
documents in1849, the Berlin Orchestra included: 27 violins, 8 violas,
11 cellos, 7 basses, 5 flutes, 4 oboes, 5 clarinets, 5 bassoons,
9 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, 2 timpani, and possibly 2 harps.
The ensemble included around 89 or 91 musicians.
- According to documents
in 1890, the Leipzig Gewandhausorchester included: 40 violins (20
first violins, 20 second violins), 13 violas, 10 cellos, 10 basses,
3 flutes, 3 oboes, 3 clarinets, 3 bassoons, 5 horns, 3 trumpets,
3 trombones, 1 timpani, and 1 other percussion. The ensemble included
around 98 musicians.
- Several mega-concerts
occurred, such as for the 1784 Commemoration of Westminster Abbey,
which recruited over 400 players. Berlioz also organized and conducted
mega-concerts, for instance at the Palais de l’Industrie in
1844 with over 1,000 performers, which included five chorus masters
and an assistant conducting simultaneously with Berlioz.
- There was no generally
practiced seating arrangement for concert orchestras (as opposed
to opera orchestras). Seating changed according to venue, function,
acoustics, repertoire, and local customs. However, orchestral seating
captured the interest of many during the time, about which treatises
were written. These documents often describe the violins positioned
in front, facing one another on opposite sides. Winds players sat
on risers in the back. Brass players sat in the very back. Violas,
cellos, and basses were placed just about anywhere. If a chorus
was involved, they were in front of the orchestra or at the sides.
The conductor stood in the center of the orchestra, among the players,
and often faced the audience.
Key
figures
- A key development in
19th century orchestras was the rise of baton conductors. Baton
conductors first appeared in France, where time beaters were found
as early as the 18th century. During the 1780’s, conductors
appeared in Germany and by the 1820’s were common in German
orchestras. The English adopted baton conductors slightly later
in the 1830’s. In Italy, first violinists continued to direct
Italian orchestras until the 1860’s. Many conductors were
former violinists who demonstrated by playing, and during the first
half of 19th century, conductors basically kept time. Soon thereafter,
conductors and the public started to think of conductors as performers
and interpreters, where the entire orchestra is the instrument.
Berlioz remarked that, “the members of an orchestra are like
strings, pipes, soundboxes and soundboards of wood or metal –
intelligent machines that the conductor plays like an immense piano”
(Berlioz, 1843). Wagner introduced the flexible beat, fluctuating
tempos, and gradations of dynamics.
- Besides conductors,
other key figures during the 19th century include composers who
significantly expanded the orchestral timbral palette, dynamic range,
and further advanced the symphony as a musical genre. Notable composers
include: Schubert, Berlioz, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, and Mahler to name
a few. Although Wagner was primarily recognized as an opera composer,
his influences can be found in later orchestral repertoire.
- A key figure in promoting
the orchestra in America was Theodore Thomas, a German-born violinist
who emigrated to the United Stated and formed his own orchestra.
He toured with his orchestra for almost 30 years throughout the
country.
Instruments-History
Woodwinds
Brass
Strings
Percussion
Repertoire-Romantic
period
20th
century to the present
During the 20th century, orchestras continued to play standard repertoire
from the previous centuries. Whereas orchestras might have looked
generally the same as before, the sound of orchestras evolved during
the 20th century. For instance, the percussion section grew both in
number and type of instruments, often incorporating non-Western instruments.
The piano was reintroduced into the orchestra as a member of the percussion
section rather than as keyboard continuo. In addition, instrumental
playing technique evolved, consequently influencing the sound of the
orchestra.
Partly in response to the astounding growth in size of orchestras
during the 19th century, smaller chamber orchestras formed during
the 20th century. Beginning in the 1970’s, some of these chamber
orchestras specialized in early music, reviving the repertory of the
17th and 18th centuries along with early performance practices.
Instrumentation
- During the 20th century,
the instrumentation of the orchestra has remained largely the same
and not many new instruments have been incorporated as standard
members since the late 19th century. Newly invented instruments
of the late 19th and early 20th centuries did not find a regular
place in the orchestra (e.g. saxophone, flugelhorn), nor did electronic
instruments (e.g. theremin, ondes martenot, Moog, electric guitar).
- On the other hand, the
20th century saw growth in the percussion section, with the inclusion
of non-Western instruments (e.g. temple blocks, gongs, maracas,
guiro) and the reintroduction of the piano into the orchestra.
Roles
of the instruments
- During the 20th century,
instrumental playing technique evolved along with precision of playing,
which occurred with the advent of musical recordings.
- During the first decades
of the 20th century, musicians started incorporating continuous
vibrato. By the 1930’s, continuous vibrato was a commonly
accepted practice. Wind players also added vibrato, first by the
French, Russian and American players, and by mid-century by the
English, Italians, and Germans.
- Due to changes in construction
(e.g. longer necks, higher string tension, steel strings replacing
gut strings), string instruments increased in volume and brightness.
- During the latter half
of the 20th c, “extended” instrumental techniques developed,
such as harmonics, microtones, sul ponticelo, col legno for the
strings, and multiphonics, hypervibrato, flutter tonguing, glissando
for the winds.
Size
of the ensemble (and arrangement)
- The modern full orchestra
typically includes: 32 violins, 12 violas, 12 cellos, 8 double basses,
4 flutes, 4 oboes, 4 clarinets, 4 bassoons, 8 horns, 4 trumpets,
3 trombones, tuba, and percussion.
- In 1970 the Boston
Symphony Orchestra included: 33 violins (18 first violins, 15 second
violins), 12 violas, 12 cellos, 9 basses, 4 flutes, 4 oboes, 4 clarinets,
4 bassoons, 6 horns, 4 trumpets, 3 trombones, 1 tuba, 1 timpani,
4 percussion, 2 harps, and 1 piano for a total of 104 musicians.
- Smaller chamber orchestras
formed after the Second World War and offered an alternative to
the expensive large ensembles of previous decades. Chamber orchestras
typically include about 40 musicians.
Key
figures
- The inclusion of women
in orchestras was an important development during the latter half
of the 20th century. At first women played in all-women orchestras,
except for harpists who played in already established orchestras
with male musicians. During the Second World War, women replaced
missing male musicians. By the 1950’s and 1960’s, orchestras
gradually started accepting women. Most German orchestras did not
accept women until the 1980’s, and the Vienna Philharmonic
did not accept women until the late 1990’s.
Instruments-History
Woodwinds
flute
• oboe • clarinet
• bassoon
Brass
French
horn • trumpet
• trombone •
tuba
Strings
violin
• viola • cello
• double bass
Percussion
Repertoire-20th
century to the present
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