|
Historical
outline of individual instruments
Strings
Violoncello (Cello)
Early History –
to 17th century
- The earliest written
evidence for the bass violin (predecessor of the cello) appeared
in 1528. The cello originated as the lowest member in the violin
family.
- Terminology has been
a confusing issue. During the early history of the cello a number
of names have referred to the instrument, such as violone, violetta,
and viola. Various terms continued to be used into the 17th century
such as viola da brazzo, violone, viola, basso da brazzo, violetta,
and bassetto.
- The early bass violins
had three strings and came in two basic sizes, corresponding to
higher and lower tunings. However, the exact dimension and size
varied considerably until the early 18th century.
- The instrument originally
had gut strings. Until the mid-17th century instrument-makers favored
making larger cellos since long and thin strings made a better sound.
One of the earlier names for the instrument was violone, a term
perhaps influenced by the length of the instrument.
- Around the mid-17th
century, instrument-makers started to fashion smaller cellos, due
to the availability of metal-covered gut strings. Along with these
developments the name violoncello emerged, becoming common during
the late 17th century.
- Although the modern-day
tuning (C-G-d-a) appeared as early as the 1530’s, other tunings,
often a step lower, were commonly used.
- The early bass violin
was played with the instrument positioned on the floor. This was
customary even as late as the 1750’s. However, by the 1700’s
performers started positioning the cello between their legs in a
manner similar to playing the bass viol, which kept the instrument
off the floor.
- There is evidence in
late 17th century Italian compositions that musicians distinguished
between the violone and violoncello.
18th century
- Around 1707, one of
Stradivari’s smaller cellos became the modern standard. Larger
cellos made during the late 17th or early 18th centuries were modified
and scaled down to Stradivari’s dimensions.
- Until the late 18th
century, the cello was held between the knees. Treatises throughout
the 18th and early 19th centuries advocated holding the cello between
the legs. However, evidence supports that some cellists supported
the cello on the floor with endpins, stools, or boxes during the
18th century.
- During the 18th century,
the cello expanded beyond its role as primarily a continuo instrument.
- During the 18th century
in Italy, musicians commonly played cellos with four strings. However,
musicians in Germany played cellos with five strings as late as
the mid-18th century.
- Tourte’s developments
with the bow (c.1786) influenced the cello bow as well, and not
much has changed since Tourte’s bow designs.
- During the 18th century,
the cellists held the bow in a various ways. The underhand grip
derived from viol technique and playing. Some players still used
this position at the end of the 18th century. However, musicians
more commonly practiced the overhand grip, as seen with the violin
bow hold.
- The number of cellos
increased in some orchestras during the 18th century. For example,
in 1754 the orchestra in Berlin had 4 cellos. In 1783, they had
6 cellos, and by 1787 the orchestra featured 8 cellos. Other orchestras
had a more modestly sized cello section, such as the orchestra in
Mannheim which 4 cellos in 1782.
- The cello started to
replace the viol as a continuo instrument by the mid-17th century
in Italy. In France, however, the viol remained popular into the
18th century, as the French resisted the cello and other influences
from Italy.
19th century
- Structurally, the cello
remained basically the same during the 19 century.
- During the 19th century,
the cello section in orchestras increased dramatically. For example,
Beethoven’s 4th through 6th symphonies were performed with
2 cellos and 2 basses. In 1814 Beethoven’s 7th and 8th symphonies
were performed with 12 cellos and 7 basses. Later in a performance
of his 9th symphony there were reportedly 12 cellos and 12 basses.
In addition, the Gewandhaus Orchestra in Leipzig had 3 cellos and
3 basses in 1802. By 1890, there were 10 cellos and 10 basses. Berlioz
recommended using at least 11 cellos and 9 basses for his Symphonie
fantastique. In 1876, Wagner’s orchestra in Bayreuth had 12
cellos and 8 basses.
- With Tourte’s
bow developments, bowing techniques changed as well. In France,
England, and Spain some musicians held the bow above the frog, whereas
in Germany some musicians held the bow on the frog. The current
practice is holding the bow on the frog.
- During the 19th century,
most cellists did not use endpins, but by the end of the century
the endpin was advocated again. The adjustable endpin appeared after
1890.
- Nineteenth century
writers commented that vibrato should be used tactfully and should
not be applied continuously.
20th century to
the present
- By this time, the endpin
was commonly accepted, and this radically changed playing technique.
This also allowed women to play the instrument in a more respectable
way, and the number of women cellists increased as a result.
- Steel strings are used
commonly played by modern-day cellists, but some cellists have favored
using older gut strings.
Orchestra-History
Early
History • Classical
period • Romantic
period • 20th
century to present
Repertoire
Classical
period • Romantic period
• 20th century to present
|
